A GRAMMAR OF NEW ITHKUIL

A CONSTRUCTED LANGUAGE

Introduction	4 Case Morphology	8 Adjuncts	12 The Writing System
1 Phonology	5 Verb Morphology	9 Referentials	13 Numbers
2 Morpho-Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	10 Special Constructions	14 The Lexicon
3 Basic Morphology	7 Affixes	11 Syntax	Appendices

3.0 BASIC MORPHOLOGY

In this chapter, we will discuss those morphological categories which are mandatory to a formative and which apply to both nominal and verbal formatives. In other words, those morphological slots from Sec. 2.3 above of a noun or verb which are grammatically required to be expressed by inflected affixes, rather than being optional. The specific categories we will discuss are Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective, Extension, Essence, Version, Function, and Context.

Standard Slot Structure of a Formative

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
(CC	VV )	CR	VR	(CSVX...)	CA	(VXCS...)	(VN CN )	VC / VK	[stress]
Concatenation status indicator	Version + Stem	Main Root	Function + Specification + Context	VXCS affix(es) apply to stem but not to CA Form is -CSVX- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII VXCS form)	Configuration + Extension + Affiliation + Perspective + Essence	VXCS affixes apply to stem + CA	Valence + Mood/Case-Scope or Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope or Phase + Mood/Case-Scope or Level + Mood/Case-Scope or Effect + Mood/Case-Scope	Case or Format or Illocution + Validation as determined by Slot X syllabic stress	penultimate stress = unframed Relation + VC ultimate stress = unframed Relation + VK antepenultimate stress = framed Relation + VC
consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.	vocalic affix	cons. form	vocalic affix	consonant + vowel	if Slot V is filled, CA is geminated	vowel + consonant	Modular Slot containing a vowel-form + consonant-form	vocalic affix

3.1 Configuration

To understand the concept of set relation and quantification of nouns in New Ithkuil (i.e., what other languages term singular, plural, etc.) one must analyze three separate but related grammatical categories termed Configuration, Affiliation, and Perspective. These concepts are alien to other languages. While they deal with semantic distinctions which are quantitative in nature, these distinctions are usually made at the lexical level (i.e., via word choice) in other languages, not at the morphological level as in New Ithkuil. In this section we will deal first with Configuration, followed by Affiliation in Section 3.2 and Perspective in Section 3.3.

Specifically, Configuration deals with the physical similarity or relationship between members of a noun referent within groups, collections, sets, assortments, arrangements, or contextual gestalts, as delineated by internal composition, separability, compartmentalization, physical similarity or componential structure. This is best explained and illustrated by means of analogies to certain English sets of words.

Consider the English word ‘tree.’ In English, a single tree may stand alone out of context, or it may be part of a group of trees. Such a group of trees may simply be two or more trees considered as a plural category based on mere number alone, e.g., two, three, or twenty trees. However, it is the nature of trees to exist in more contextually relevant groupings than merely numerical ones. For example, the trees may be of like species as in a ‘grove’ of trees. The grouping may be an assortment of different kinds of trees as in a ‘forest’ or occur in patternless disarray such as a ‘jungle.’

As another example, we can examine the English word ‘person.’ While persons may occur in simple numerical groupings such as ‘a (single) person’ or ‘three persons’ it is more common to find persons (i.e., people) referred to by words which indicate various groupings such as ‘group,’ ‘gathering,’ ‘crowd,’ etc.

Segmentation and amalgamated componential structure are further configurative principles which distinguish related words in English. The relationships between car versus convoy, hanger versus rack, chess piece versus chess set, sentry versus blockade, piece of paper versus sheaf, girder versus (structural) framework, and coin versus roll of coins all exemplify these principles.

Another type of contextual grouping of nouns occurs in binary sets, particularly in regard to body parts. These binary sets can comprise two identical referents as in a pair of eyes, however they are more often opposed or “mirror-image” (i.e., complementary) sets as in limbs, ears, hands, wings, etc.

The semantic distinctions implied by the above examples as they relate to varying assortments of trees or persons would be accomplished by inflecting the word-stem for ‘tree’ or ‘person’ into one of twenty differnet configurations. Additional semantic distinctions on the basis of purpose or function between individual members of a set could then be made by means of Affiliation (see Section 3.2 below) and by the use of specific affixes. For example, once the words for ‘forest’ or ‘crowd’ were derived from ‘tree’ and ‘person’ via Configuration, the words for ‘orchard,’ ‘copse,’ ‘team’ or ‘mob’ could easily be derived via affiliation and affixes. (Such derivations into new words using affixes are explored in detail in Chapter 7: Affixes.)

The category of Configuration consists of the amalgamation of three separate factors: Plexity, Separability, and Similarity.

· Plexity is a three-way distinction as to whether an entity/event/act/state is single or internally unified, is binary or two-halved in nature, or has three or more components/pieces/parts/members. These three states of Plexity are termed uniplex, duplex, and multiplex (abbreviated as U, D, and M) .

· Separability is a three-way distinction as to whether a group of entities when considered as a whole have individual members which are physically separate from each other, connected to each other in some way (whether physically or abstractly or metaphorically), or fused together (whether physically or abstractly or metaphorically). These three states of Separability are termed separate, connected, and fused (abbreviated as S, C, and F as the second letter following the Plexity abbreviation letter). Note that Separability does not apply to uniplex entities/events/acts/states.

· Similarity is a three-way distinction as to whether a group of entities considered as a whole have individual members which are physically similar to each other, physically dissimilar to each other, or which together constitute a “fuzzy” category in terms of similarity (where the degree of similarity between individual members is subjective, unascertainable, irrelevant or not easily definable). These three states of Similarity are termed Similar, Dissimilar, and Fuzzy (abbreviated S, D, and F as the third letter following the Plexity and Separability abbreviation letters). Note that Similarity does not apply to uniplex entities/events/acts/states.

Based on the above, there are a total of twenty configurations, indicated via the C_A consonantal affix in Slot VI of the formative. Note that in addition to showing Configuration, this C_A affix also indicates the Affiliation, Perspective, Extension and Essence of the stem. The twenty configurations are shown below, each with its consonantal affix that appears in Slot VI of the formative:

UPX	uniplex	— *	DPX	duplex	s
MSS	multiplex/similar/separate	t	DSS	duplex/similar/separate	c
MSC	multiplex/similar/connected	k	DSC	duplex/similar/connected	ks
MSF	multiplex/similar/fused	p	DSF	duplex/similar/fused	ps
MDS	multiplex/dissimilar/separate	ţ	DDS	duplex/dissimilar/separate	ţs
MDC	multiplex/dissimilar/connected	f	DDC	duplex/dissimilar/connected	fs
MDF	multiplex/dissimilar/fused	ç	DDF	duplex/dissimilar/fused	š
MFS	multiplex/fuzzy/separate	z	DFS	duplex/fuzzy/separate	č
MFC	multiplex/fuzzy/connected	ž	DFC	duplex/fuzzy/connected	kš
MFF	multiplex/fuzzy/fused	ẓ	DFF	duplex/fuzzy/fused	pš

* The uniplex is shown by the absence of any Configuration affix; if all five C_A affixes have their “zero”/default values, the C_A form is -l-.

Note that a formative in DPX Configuration alone indicates that it constitutes a pair, without overtly specifying the similarity or separability between the two member-entities of the pair.

Examples of Various Configurations:

rrala ‘cat’-upx ‘a cat’	anzwul ‘spherical-shape’-obj-upx ‘a sphere’
rrasa ‘cat’-dpx ‘a pair of cats’	anzwut ‘spherical -shape’-obj-mss ‘a group of similar spheres’
rraca ‘cat’-dss ‘a pair of similar cats’	anzwuk ‘spherical-shape’-obj-msc ‘a group of similar spheres touching each other/connected to one another’
rraţsa ‘cat’-dds ‘a pair of dissimilar cats’	anzwup ‘spherical-shape’-obj-msf ‘a group of similar spheres fused together’
rrata ‘cat’-mss ‘a group of similar cats’	anzwuf ‘spherical-shape’-obj-mdc ‘a group of dissimilar spheres touching each other/connected to one another’
rraţa ‘cat’-mds ‘a group of dissimilar cats’	anzwuç ‘spherical-shape’-obj-mdf ‘a group of dissimilar spheres fused together’
rraza ‘cat’-mfs ‘a group of what appear to be cats, some more than others’	anzwuž ‘spherical-shape’-obj-mfc ‘a group of rounded objects touching each other/connected to one another, some of which appear to be spheres, others less so’
Blöfêi onţlilu. ‘curved.translative.motion’-dyn/obj-mdc-asr/usp Stem.0-‘automobile’-sta/obj-ind ‘The driver drove the car along a series of variously-sized curves.’

3.2 Affiliation

While the category of Configuration from the preceding section distinguishes the relationships between the individual members of a set in terms of physical similarities, physical connections, and number of component-entities, the category of Affiliation operates to distinguish the member relationships in terms of subjective purpose, function, or benefit. Affiliation operates synergistically in conjunction with Configuration to describe the total contextual relationship between the members of a set. Like Configuration, the meanings of nouns or verbs in the various affiliations often involve lexical changes when translated into English.

Returning to our earlier example of the word tree, we saw how a group of trees of the same species becomes a grove in the MSC configuration. The word grove implies that the trees have grown naturally, with no specific purpose or function in regard to human design or utilization. On the other hand, groves of trees may be planted by design, in which case they become an orchard. We saw how trees occurring as a natural assortment of different kinds is termed a forest. However, such assortments can become wholly chaotic, displaying patternless disarray from the standpoint of subjective human design, thus becoming a jungle.

As another example, we saw how the word person becomes group, or gathering, both of which are neutral as to subjective purpose or function. However, applying a sense of purposeful design generates words such as team, while the absence of purpose results in crowd.

There are four affiliations: consolidative, associative, variative, and coalescent. Like Configuration, Affiliation is also indicated as part of the C_A affix-complex in Slot VI of the formative. An Affiliation affix constitutes the first affix shown in the C_A affix-complex in Slot VI, immediately before the Configuration affix. The details of the four affiliations are explained below along with their affixes.

3.2.1

CSL

The Consolidative

The consolidative affiliation is shown by a null affix, i.e., it is the absence of an Affiliation affix in slot VI that indicates consolidative affiliation. This affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set are a naturally occurring set where the function, state, purpose or benefit of individual members is inapplicable, irrelevant, or if applicable, is shared. It differs from the associative affiliation below in that the role of individual set members is not subjectively defined by human design. Examples are tree branches, a grove, a mound of rocks, some people, the clouds.

The consolidative is also the affiliation normally applied to nouns in the uniplex configuration when spoken of in a neutral way, since a noun in the uniplex specifies one single entity without reference to a set, therefore the concept of “shared” function would be inapplicable. Examples: a man, a door, a sensation of heat, a leaf. With verbs, the consolidative would imply that the act, state, or event is occurring naturally, or is neutral as to purpose or design.

Examples:

čveţa arsweţ zvata sřula

‘a bunch of tools’ ‘a group of planets’ ‘a set/group of similar dogs’ ‘a room’s function’

3.2.2

ASO

The Associative

The associative affiliation is shown by the Slot VI-initial affix -l-, immediately followed by the Configuration affix. Note that if this affix is the only affix shown in the entire Slot VI C_A affix-complex, then it is instead shown by the stand-alone affix -nļ-. associative affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set share the same subjective function, state, purpose or benefit. Its use can be illustrated by taking the word for “soldier” in multiplex configuration and comparing its English translations when inflected for the consolidative affiliation (= a group of soldiers) versus the associative (= a troop, a platoon). It is this consolidative versus associative distinction, then, that would distinguish otherwise equivalent inflections of the word for tree by translating them respectively as a grove versus an orchard.

The associative affiliation can also be used with nouns in the uniplex configuration to signify a sense of unity amongst one’s characteristics, purposes, thoughts, etc. For example, the word person inflected for the uniplex and associative would translate as a single-minded person. Even nouns such as rock, tree or work of art could be inflected this way, subjectively translatable as a well-formed rock, a tree with integrity, a “balanced” work of art.

With verbs, the associative signifies that the act, state or event is by design or with specific purpose. The consolidative versus associative distinction could be used, for example, with the verb turn in I turned toward the window to indicate whether it was for no particular reason or due to a desire to look outside.

čvelţa arswelţ zvalta sřunļa

‘a well-designed set of tools’ ‘an alliance of planets’ ‘a pack of similar dogs’ ‘the room’s singular purpose’

3.2.3

COA

The Coalescent

The coalescent affiliation is shown by the Slot VI-initial affix -r-, immediately followed by the Configuration affix. Note that if this affix is the only affix shown in the entire Slot VI C_A affix-complex, then it is instead shown by the stand-alone affix -rļ-. The coalescent affiliation indicates that the members of a configurational set share in a complementary relationship with respect to their individual functions, states, purposes, benefits, etc. This means that, while each member’s function is distinct from those of other members, each serves in furtherance of some greater unified role. For example, the word translating English toolset would be the word for tool in the MDS (multiplex-dissimilar/separate) configuration (due to each tool’s distinct physical appearance) and the coalescent affiliation to indicate that each tool has a distinct but complementary function in furtherance of enabling construction or repair activities. Another example would be the word for finger inflected for the MSC (multiplex-similar-connected) configuration and the coalescent affiliation, translatable as the fingers on one’s hand (note the use of the MSC configuration to imply the physical connection between each finger via the hand). A further example would be using the coalescent with the word for (piece of) food to signify a well-balanced meal.

The coalescent naturally appears most often in conjunction with the duplex configuration since binary sets tend to be complementary. It is used, for example, to signify symmetrical binary sets such as body parts, generally indicating a lefthand/righthand mirror-image distinction, e.g., one’s ears, one’s hands, a pair of wings. Pairs that do not normally distinguish such a complementary distinction (e.g., one’s eyes) can nevertheless be optionally placed in the coalescent affiliation to emphasize bilateral symmetry (e.g., one’s left and right eye functioning together).

With verbs, the coalescent signifies that related, synergistic nature of the component acts, states, and events which make up a greater holistic act, state, or event. It imposes a situational structure onto an act, state, or event, where individual circumstances work together in complementary fashion to comprise the total situation. It would be used, for example, to distinguish the sentences He traveled in the Yukon from He ventured in the Yukon, or I came up with a plan versus I fashioned a plan.

čverţa arswerţ zvarta sřurļa

‘a toolset’ ‘a confederation of planets’ ‘a dog team’ ‘a room whose purposes are interrelated’

3.2.4

VAR

The Variative

The variative affiliation is shown by the Slot VI-initial affix -ř-, immediately followed by the Configuration affix. Note that if this affix is the only affix shown in the entire Slot VI C_A affix-complex, then it is instead shown by the stand-alone affix -ň-. The variative affiliation indicates that the individual members of a configurational set differ as to subjective function, state, purpose or benefit. The differences among members can be to varying degrees (i.e., constituting a fuzzy set in regard to function, purpose, etc.) or at complete odds with one another, although it should be noted that the variative would not be used to signify opposed but complementary differences among set members (see the coalescent affiliation below). It would thus be used to signify a jumble of tools, odds-and-ends, a random gathering, a rag-tag group, a dysfunctional couple, a cacophony of notes, of a mess of books, a collection in disarray. It operates with nouns in the uniplex to render meanings such as a man at odds with himself, an ill-formed rock, a chaotic piece of art, a “lefthand-righthand” situation.

With verbs, the variative indicates an act, state, or event that occurs for more than one reason or purpose, and that those reasons or purposes are more or less unrelated. This sense can probably be captured in English only through paraphrase, as in She bought the house for various reasons or My being at the party served several purposes. With non-uniplex configurations, the use of the variative affiliation can describe rather complex phenomena; for example, a sentence using the MSS configuration such as The light is blinking in conjunction with the variative would mean that each blink of the light signals something different than the preceding or following blinks.

čveřţa arsweřţ zvařta sřuňa

‘a mish-mash of various tools’ ‘a disorganized group of planets’ ‘a rag-tag group of dogs’ ‘a room with disparate purposes’

3.3 Perspective

Perspective is the closest New Ithkuil equivalent to the Number category of most natural languages (i.e., singular, plural, collective, etc.). There are four perspectives: monadic, agglomerative, nomic, and abstract, shown respectively by the Slot VI affixes [null] (with stand-alone alternate of -l),-r-, -w- (with stand-alone alternate of -v), and -y- (with stand-alone alternate of -j). The Perspective affix comes last in the sequence of affixes contained in the Slot VI C_A affix-complex. The four perspectives are described below:

3.3.1

M

The Monadic

The monadic is unmarked in terms of an affix (i.e., a null affix), unless it is the only affix in the Slot VI C_A affix-complex, in which case its affix is -l-. It signifies a single embodiment of a particular configuration, meaning a contextual entity which, though possibly numerous in membership or multifaceted in structure, or spread out through a duration of time, is nevertheless being contextually viewed and considered as a “monad,” a single, unified whole. This is important, since configurations other than the uniplex technically imply more than one discrete entity/instance being present or taking place. For nouns, this corresponds to what in Western languages would usually be singular number. For verbs, this can be thought of as a single instance/occurrence/manifestation of an act, event, or state.

Thus, using the word tree for example, while there might be many trees present in terms of number, the monadic means they form only one embodiment of whatever particular Configuration category is manifested. Using the MDC configuration as an example, the monadic would mean there is only one MDC set of trees, i.e., one forest.

Singulative Equivalent: In natural languages, nouns differ between those that can be counted and pluralized (e.g., one apple, four boys, several nations), and those which cannot be counted or pluralized (e.g., water, sand, plastic, air, laughter). All nouns are countable in New Ithkuil in that all nouns can exist as contextual monads. As a result, monadic nouns in New Ithkuil which refer to what are non-count nouns in other languages (or “collective” nouns such as ‘leaves’ or ‘hair’) must be translated into what linguists call the “singulative” mode, referring to the smallest salient single manifestation of the entity in question, e.g., ‘a drop of water’, ‘a speck of dust’, ‘a single hair’, ‘a single leaf’, ‘a puff/whiff of air’, ‘a single step/stride (of a walk/stroll)’, etc., whereas the more usual ways in which English and other languages express manifestations of non-count nouns as vague amounts are expressed in New ithkuil by the agglomerative perspective in Sec. 3.3.2 below, e.g., ‘some water’, ‘some dust’, ‘(one’s) hair’, ‘some leaves’, ‘the air (here)’.

avsal ‘a season’

ţrala ‘a drop of water’

elzeţ ‘different rivers’

3.3.2

G

The Agglomerative

The agglomerative is marked by the affix -r- as the last (or only) affix in Slot VI. It indicates a neutral or fuzzy meaning in terms of number: ‘at least one X / one or more X / any number of X’. It is used when the specific number of an entity is irrelevant or the context of the utterance applies to either one or more than one of an entity. It also is used to create mass nouns from non-count nouns, as stated in the previous paragraph, e.g., ‘some rice / an amount of rice’, ‘(some) hair’, ‘(some / an amount of) water’, ‘the leaves’.

For verbs, the agglomerative distinguishes the same fuzzy “non-count” distinction as for nouns: ‘some X-ing occurs/manifests / there’s some X-ing going on’ versus monadic ‘a single instance of X occurs/manifests’.

NOTE: New Ithkuil does not have a Perspective corresponding to the plural ‘two or more’ meaning found in most Western languages. If needed, plural number can be conveyed by Degrees 5 or 6 of the XX2 affix (see the accompanying Affixes document).

avsar ‘one or more seasons’ / ‘any number of seasons’

ţrara ‘some water’

elzeţra ‘at least one set of different rivers’

3.3.3

N

The Nomic

The nomic is marked by the affix -w- in final position of Slot VI, unless it is the only affix in Slot VI, in which case the affix is -v-. The nomic refers to a generic collective entity or archetype, containing all members or instantiations of a configurative set throughout space and time (or within a specified spatio-temporal context). Since it is all members being spoken of, and no individual members in particular, this category is mutually exclusive from the monadic or agglomerative. For nouns, the nomic corresponds approximately to the several constructions used for referring to collective nouns in English, as seen in the sentences The dog is a noble beast, Clowns are what children love most, There is nothing like a tree.

With verbs, the nomic designates an action, event, or situation which describes a general law of nature or a persistently true condition or situation spoken of in general, without reference to a specific instance or occurrence of the activity (it is, in fact, all possible instances or occurrences that are being referred to). English has no specialized way of expressing such generic statements, generally using the simple present tense. Examples of usage would be The sun doesn't set on our planet, Mr. Okotele is sickly, In winter it snows a lot, That girl sings well.

avsav ‘a season’ (as a generic concept)

ţrava ‘water’ (as a generic concept)

elzeţwa ‘different rivers’ (as a generic concept)

3.3.4

A

The Abstract

The abstract is marked by the affix -y- in final position of Slot VI, unless it is the only affix in Slot VI, in which case the affix is -j-. Similar to the formation of English abstract nouns using suffixes such as -hood or -ness, the abstract transforms a configurative category into an abstract concept considered in a non-spatial, timeless, numberless context. While only certain nouns in English can be made into abstracts via suffixes, all Ithkuil nouns in all Configurative categories can be made into abstracts, the translations of which must often be periphrastic in nature, e.g., grove → the idea of being a grove or “grovehood”; book → everything about books, having to do with books, involvement with books.

With verbs, the abstract is used in verbal constructions to create a temporal abstraction, where the temporal relationship of the action, event, or state to the present is irrelevant or inapplicable, similar to the way in which the English infinitive or gerund form (used as substitutes for a verb phrase) do not convey a specific tense in the following sentences: Singing is not his strong suit; It makes no sense to worry about it; I can't stand her pouting. As a result, the abstract acts as a “timeless” verb form which, much like these English infinitives and gerunds, operates in conjunction with a separate main verb in one of the other three perspectives. The abstract is often used in conjunction with certain moods of the verb (and Sec. 5.2) as well as the use of various “Modality” affixes (see the accompanying Affixes document) which convey hypothetical or unrealized situations, in which the temporal relationship to the present is arbitrary, inapplicable, or unknowable.

avsaj ‘everything about a season / ”season-hood”’

ţraja ‘everything having to do with water’

elzeţya ‘different rivers as an idea’

3.4 Extension

Extension is another morphological category for which there is no exact equivalent in other languages. It applies to all formatives and indicates the manner in which the noun or verb is being considered in terms of spatial or temporal extent or boundaries. Another way to put it is that Extension indicates what “part” of an entity/act/event/state is being addressed or focused on. Extension is shown as part of a formative’s C_A affix in Slot VI which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation, Perspective and Essence. There are six extensions: delimitive, proximal, inceptive, attenuative, graduative, and depletive.

3.4.1

DEL

The Delimitive

The delimitive extension indicates that a noun is being spoken of in its contextual entirety as a discrete entity with clear spatio-temporal boundaries, with no emphasis on any particular portion, edge, boundary, limit, or manifestation beyond the context at hand. It can be considered the neutral or default view, e.g., a tree, a grove, a set of books, an army. To illustrate a contextual example, the English sentence He climbed the ladder would be translated with the word ladder in the delimitive to show it is being considered as a whole. With verbs, this extension indicates that the act, state, or event is being considered in its entirety, from beginning to end, e.g., She diets every winter (i.e., she starts and finishes each diet). The delimitive can be thought of as an expanse of spacetime that has definite beginning and ending points, beyond which the noun or verb does not exist or occur. The figure at right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a concept in the delimitive to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

The delimitive is shown by a null affix, i.e., it is the absence of an Extension affix in the CA affix-complex that indicates delimitive extension.

elzel ‘a river’

psulça ‘a situation’

uẓfäl ‘a tunnel’

erbräl ‘an explanation’

3.4.2

PRX

The Proximal

The proximal extension indicates that a noun is being spoken of not in its entirety, but rather only in terms of the portion, duration, subset, or aspect which is relevant to the context at hand. It would be used to translate the words tree, journey, and ladder in the sentences That tree is hard there (e.g., in the spot where I hit against it), She lost weight during her journey, or He climbed on the ladder (i.e., it is not relevant to the context to know if he made it all the way to the top). Note that in these sentences, the proximal does not refer to a specific or delineated piece, part, or component of the tree or ladder, but rather to the fact that delineated boundaries such as the ends of the ladder or the entirety of the tree are not relevant or applicable to the context at hand. With verbs, this extension signifies that it is not the entirety of an act, state, or event which is being considered, but rather the spatial extent or durational period of the act, state, or event relevant to the context, e.g., She’s on a diet every winter (i.e., focus on “having to live on” a diet, not the total time spent dieting from start to finish). The figure at right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the proximal to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

The proximal is shown by the affix -t-, placed between the Configuration affix and the Perspective affix in the CA affix-complex. However, if the Configuration affix is null (i.e., the Configuration of the word is uniplex), then the proximal affix is -d-.

elzed ‘a section/stretch of (a) river’

psulçta ‘the midst of a situation’

ujrarft ‘an area/section of a transportation system’

erbräd ‘a portion of an explanation’

3.4.3

ICP

The Inceptive

The inceptive extension focuses on the closest boundary, the beginning, initiation, or the immediately accessible portion of a noun or verb, without focusing on the boundaries of the remainder. It would be used in translating the nouns tunnel, song, desert, daybreak and plan in the following sentences: We looked into (the mouth of) the tunnel, He recognizes that song (i.e., from the first few notes), They came upon (an expanse of) desert, Let’s wait for daybreak, I’m working out a plan (i.e., that I just thought of). In verbal contexts it would correspond to the English ‘to begin (to)…’ or ‘to start (to)…’ as in He began reading, It’s starting to molt, She goes on a diet every winter, or He initiated a process of seduction. The figure at right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the inceptive to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”).

The inceptive is shown by the affix -k-, placed between the Configuration affix and the Perspective affix in the CA affix-complex. However, if the Configuration affix is null (i.e., the Configuration of the word is uniplex), then the inceptive affix is -g-.

elzeg ‘the source of a river’

psulçka ‘the beginning of a situation’

ujrarfk ‘the initial part of a transportation system’

erbräg ‘the start of an explanation’

3.4.4

ATV

The Attenuative

The attenuative extension focuses on the end, termination, last portion, or trailing boundary of a noun, without focusing on the preceding or previously existing state of the noun. It would be used in translating the words water, story, and arrival in the sentences There’s no water (i.e., we ran out), I like the end of that story, and We await your arrival. With verbs, it is illustrated by the sentences It finished molting or She’s come off her diet. The figure at right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the attenuative to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). The attenuative is shown by the affix -p-, placed between the Configuration affix and the Perspective affix in the CA affix-complex. However, if the Configuration affix is null (i.e., the Configuration of the word is uniplex), then the attenuative affix is -b-.

elzeb psulçpa ujrarfpa erbräb

‘the end of a river’ ‘a situation’s end’ ‘end of a transportation system’ ‘the end of an explanation’

3.4.5

GRA

The Graduative

The graduative extension focuses on a diffuse, extended “fade-in” or gradual onset of a noun. It would be used in translating the words darkness, wonder, and music in the following sentences: Darkness came upon us, I felt a growing sense of wonder, The music was very soft at first. With verbs it is illustrated by verbs and phrases such as to fade in, to start gradually, to build up, and similar notions, e.g., She’s been eating more and more lately. The figure at right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun in the graduative to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). The graduative is shown by the affix -g-, placed between the Configuration affix and the Perspective affix in the CA affix-complex. However, if the Configuration affix is null (i.e., the Configuration of the word is uniplex), then the graduative affix is -gz-.

elzegz psulçga ujrarfga erbrägz

‘the headwaters of a river’ ‘an evolving situation’ ‘a developing transportation system’ ‘a gradual explanation’

3.4.6

DPL

The Depletive

The depletive extension is the inverse of the graduative above, focusing on the terminal boundary or “trailing” edge of a noun, where this terminus is ill-defined, “diffuse” or extended to some degree, (i.e. the at-hand context of the noun “peters out” or terminates gradually). Essentially, it applies to any context involving actual or figurative fading. It would be used in translating the words water, strength, and twilight in the sentences He drank the last of the water, I have little strength left, She disappeared into the twilight. With verbs, it is exemplified by the phrases to wind down, to fade out, to disappear gradually and similar notions, e.g., She’s eating less and less these days. The figure at right illustrates the spatio-temporal relationship of a noun or verbal concept in the depletive to the context at-hand (i.e., the spatio-temporal “present”). The depletive is shown by the affix -b-, placed between the Configuration affix and the Perspective affix in the CA affix-complex. However, if the Configuration affix is null (i.e., the Configuration of the word is uniplex), then the depletive affix is -bz-.

elzebz psulçba ujrarfba erbräbz

‘the mouth of a river’ ‘last vestiges of a situation’ ‘decline of a transportation system’ ‘the unraveling of an explanation’

3.5 Essence

Essence refers to a two-fold morphological distinction which has no counterpart in Western languages. It is best explained by reference to various English language illustrations. Compare the following pairs of English sentences:

1a) The boy ran off to sea. 1b) The boy who ran off to sea didn’t run off to sea.

2a) The dog you saw is to be sold tomorrow. 2b) The dog you saw doesn’t exist.

Sentences (1a) and (2a) appear to be straightforward sentences in terms of meaning and interpretation. However, at first blush, sentences (1b) and (2b) appear nonsensical, and it is not until we consider specialized contexts for these sentences that they make any sense. For example, (1b) would make sense if being spoken by an author reporting a change of mind about the plot for a story, while (2b) makes sense when spoken by a puzzled pet store owner in whose window you earlier saw a dog that is no longer there.

Why sentences such as (1b) and (2b) can have possible real-world meaning is because they in fact do not make reference to an actual boy or dog, but rather to hypothetical representations of a real-world boy and dog, being used as references back to those real-world counterparts from within an “alternative mental space” created psychologically (and implied linguistically) where events can be spoken about that are either unreal, as-yet-unrealized, or alternative versions of what really takes place. This alternative mental space, then, is essentially the psychological realm of both potential and imagination. In Western languages, such an alternative mental space is implied by context or indicated by certain lexical signals. One such group of lexical signals are the so-called “modal” verbs of English, e.g., must, can, should, etc. as seen in the following:

3) You must come home at once.

4) That girl can sing better than anybody.

5) We should attack at dawn.

Each of the above three sentences describe potential events, not actual real-world happenings that are occurring or have occurred. For example, in Sentence (3) no one has yet come home nor do we know whether coming home is even possible, in Sentence (4) the girl may never sing a single note ever again for all we know, and Sentence (5) gives us no information as to whether any attack will actually occur.

3.5.1 NRM The Normal RPV The Representative

The morphological category of Essence explicitly distinguishes real-world actualities from their alternative, imagined or potential counterparts. The two essences are termed normal and representative, the former being the default essence denoting real-world nouns and verbs, the latter denoting alternative counterparts. By marking such counterparts explicitly, a speaker can express any noun or verb as referring to a real-world versus alternative manifestation, without having the listener infer such from an explanatory context.

Essence is as part of the C_A affix-complex which also indicates Configuration, Affiliation and Perspective and Extension. normal essence is unmarked (i.e., it is the absence of any Essence affix that indicates normal essence. representative essence is shown by changing the value of the Perspective affix at the end of the C_A affix-complex: change the monadic affix from null to -l-, unless all other C_A affixes are null, in which case change the monadic affix to the standalone value of -tļ-; change the agglomerative affix from -r- to -ř-; change the nomic affix from -w- to -m- unless immediately preceded by a consonant + t, a consonant + p, or a consonant + k, in which case change the nomic affix to -h-; change the abstract affix from -y- to -n-, unless immediately preceded by a consonant + t, a consonant + p, or a consonant + k, in which case change the nomic affix to -ç-.

Ẓalá kšili ežḑatļëi. ‘see’-nrm ‘clown’-nrm-aff ‘ghost’-rpv-stm ‘The clown sees what he thinks is/imagines to be ghost.’

Ẓatļá kšili wežḑëi. ‘see’-rpv ‘clown’-nrm-aff ‘ghost’-nrm-stm ‘The clown imagines he is seeing a ghost.’

3.6 The C_A Affix-Complex

As described in Sections 3.1 through 3.5 above, the C_A affix-complex constitutes a single agglutinative mass of consonant affixes conveying five different morphological categories in a single morphological Slot (Slot VI). The initial consonant-form indicates Affiliation, the second indicates Configuration, the third Extension, and the fourth indicates both Perspective and Essence. These four consonant-forms are strung together in sequential fashion to form the C_A complex as a whole. Note that all but one of the four consonant-forms has a default form of zero, meaning that in most cases, the C_A complex will manifest fewer than four consonant-forms. In fact, the most commonly occurring C_A form is CSL/UPX/DEL/M/NRM shown simply by the lone affix -l-.

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
(CC	VV )	CR	VR	(CSVX...)	CA	(VXCS...)	(VN CN )	VC / VK	[stress]
Concatenation status indicator	Version + Stem	Main Root	Function + Specification + Context	VXCS affix(es) apply to stem but not to CA Form is -CSVX- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII VXCS form)	Configuration + Extension + Affiliation + Perspective + Essence	VXCS affixes apply to stem + CA	Valence + Mood/Case-Scope or Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope or Phase + Mood/Case-Scope or Level + Mood/Case-Scope or Effect + Mood/Case-Scope	Case or Format or Illocution + Validation as determined by Slot X syllabic stress	penultimate stress = unframed Relation + VC ultimate stress = unframed Relation + VK antepenultimate stress = framed Relation + VC
consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.	vocalic affix	cons. form	vocalic affix	consonant + vowel	if Slot V is filled, CA is geminated	vowel + consonant	Modular Slot containing a vowel-form + consonant-form	vocalic affix

Due to the agglutinative nature of the C_A affix-complex, it is helpful to illustrate its phonological structure of in table form, as shown below. Note that, due to the large number of consonant combinations that can exist within this affix-complex, it is inevitable that certain consonant combinations will either be difficult to pronounce, give rise to ambiguities with other affix combinations, or even violate the phonotactic rules of the language. For these reasons, there are 19 consonantal C_A combinations that must be replaced by different consonant combinations. These replacement combinations are known as allomorphic substitutions and are listed within the table below. (Note that within the listing of allomorphic substitutions, the symbol [C] means “any consonant”.)

C_A complex — Affiliation + Configuration + Extension + Perspective + Essence

AFFILIATION

CONFIGURATION

EXTENSION

PERSPECTIVE + ESSENCE

CSL

consolidative

—

-DPX

+DPX

DEL

delimitive

—

NRM

RPV

ASO

associative

l (nļ)

UPX

uniplex

—

s

PRX

proximal

t / d^1

M

monadic

— (l)

l (tļ)

COA

coalescent

r (rļ)

M / D multiplex/ Duplex similar

SS separate

t

c

ICP

inceptive

k / g^1

G

agglomerative

r

ř

VAR

variative

ř (ň)

SC connected

k

ks

ATV

attenuative

p / b^1

N

nomic

w (v)

m / h^2

Forms in parentheses are standalone forms

SF fused

p

ps

GRA

graduative

g / gz^1

A

abstract

y (j)

n / ç^2

M / D multiplex/ Duplex dissimilar

DS separate

ţ

ţs

DPL

depletive

b / bz^1

DC connected

f

fs

Allomorphic Substitutions: pp → mp pb → mb rr → ns [C]gm → [C]x [C]bm → [C]v tt→ nt kg → ng rř → nš [C]gn → [C]ň [C]bn → [C]ḑ kk → nk çy → nd řr → ňs ngn → ňn fbm → (fv) → vw ll → pļ řř → ňš [C]çx → [C]xw ţbn → (tḑ) → ḑy

DF fused

ç

š

M / D multiplex/ Duplex fuzzy

FS separate

z

č

FC connected

ž

kš

FF fused

ẓ

pš

¹ Use the alternate form if the Configuration of the word is UPX

² Use the alternate form when preceded by [C]t-, [C]k-, or [C]p-

3.6.1 Gemination of C_A when C_SV_X affixes are present in Slot V

If Slot V of a formative contains any affixes, it becomes necessary to show where Slot V ends and Slot VI begins. This is accomplished by gemination of the C_A form as per the rules below. (This is why no Slot V/VII C_S affix increment can be a geminated consonant.)

NOTE: When geminating a C_A consonant-form, first apply all required allomorphic substitutions to the C_A form as per the above table. Then apply the following rules:

1. For C_A forms consisting of a single consonant, geminate the consonant, e.g., p → pp, t → tt, m → mm, c → cc, ẓ → ẓẓ, r → rr, s → ss.

2. The standalone form tļ becomes ttļ (although if it is in word-final position, it is actually pronounced tļļ as per the rule for gemination of affricates in Sec. 1.4).

3. For forms beginning with a stop (t, k, p, d, g, b) followed by a liquid or an approximant (l, r, ř, w, y), geminate the stop, e.g., . pl → ppl, gw → ggw.

4. For forms containing a sibilant fricative or affricate (s, š, z, ž, ç, c, č) in any position, geminate the sibilant fricative or affricate, e.g., kst → ksst, gz → gzz, çkl → ççkl, čtw → ččtw.

5. For forms beginning with either a non-sibilant fricative (f, ţ, v, ḑ) or a nasal (n, m, ň), geminate it unless previous rule No. 4 pertaining to sibilant fricatives (s, š, z, ž, ç) applies, e.g., fk → ffk, mpw → mmpw.

6. For forms beginning with a voiceless stop (t, k, p) followed by a fricative (s, š, f, ţ, ç), geminate the fricative, e.g., pf → pff, tçkl → tççkl, kst → ksst.

7. For C_A forms ending in two stops, for which the previous six rules are inapplicable, use the following substitutions:

pt → bbḑ pk → bbv kt → ggḑ kp → ggv tk → ḑvv tp → ddv

8. For C_A forms ending in a stop (t, k, p, d, g, b) plus nasal (n, m, ň) for which the previous seven rules are inapplicable, use the following substitutions:

pm → vvm pn → vvn km→xxm kn → xxn tm → ḑḑm tn → ḑḑn

bm → mmw bn → mml gm→ ňňw gn → ňňl dm → nnw dn → nnl

9. For forms beginning with l-, r- or ř-, apply one of the above eight rules as if the l-, r- or ř- were not present; if the resulting form including the initial l-, r- or ř- is not phonotactically permissible or is euphonically awkward, geminate the l-, r- or ř- instead.

3.7 Version

Version refers to a two-way distinction known in linguistics as “telicity”, i.e., whether or not an entity, act, event, or state is goal- or result-oriented. Version addresses semantic distinctions which are usually rendered by lexical differentiation (i.e., word choice) in languages such as English. The two Versions are processual and completive, as described below.

Standard Slot Structure of a Formative

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
(CC	VV )	CR	VR	(CSVX...)	CA	(VXCS...)	(VN CN )	VC / VK	[stress]
Concatenation status indicator	Version + Stem	Main Root	Function + Specification + Context	VXCS affix(es) apply to stem but not to CA Form is -CSVX- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII VXCS form)	Configuration + Extension + Affiliation + Perspective + Essence	VXCS affixes apply to stem + CA	Valence + Mood/Case-Scope or Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope or Phase + Mood/Case-Scope or Level + Mood/Case-Scope or Effect + Mood/Case-Scope	Case or Format or Illocution + Validation as determined by Slot X syllabic stress	penultimate stress = unframed Relation + VC ultimate stress = unframed Relation + VK antepenultimate stress = framed Relation + VC
consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.	vocalic affix	cons. form	vocalic affix	consonant + vowel	if Slot V is filled, CA is geminated	vowel + consonant	Modular Slot containing a vowel-form + consonant-form	vocalic affix

3.7.1 PRC The Processual

The processual is the default version and is unmarked. It describes all objects, entities, acts, conditions, or events which are ends in themselves and not goal-oriented, i.e., are not focused on an anticipated outcome or final purpose toward which a progressive effort is being made.

3.7.2 CPT The Completive

The completive version describes acts, conditions, or events which achieve, or are intended to achieve, an anticipated outcome, i.e., which are oriented toward the achievement of some purpose, outcome, or final state. Such a distinction is usually handled by word choice in Western languages. The dynamism of Version can be seen in the following comparisons:

PROCESSUAL → COMPLETIVE

to hunt → to hunt down to be losing → to lose to study → to learn to be winning → to win to strive for → to accomplish, achieve to risk → to defeat the odds; win to work → to build, construct, make to displace; infiltrate → infest, to take over; vanquish to pour out → to drain to remove (incrementally) → to eliminate to increase → to maximize to read → to read to the end; finish reading to decrease → minimize to flank → to surround to enlarge → to make gigantic to spread upon or over → to cover, engulf, envelop to shrink → miniaturize to chase → to catch up to to eat → eat all up to pursue → to capture to compete → to win

to be pregnant → to give birth to throw at → to hit (with a throw) to run low on → to run out of, deplete to grow → to grow up to use → use up to possess, hold → to keep to tear/ rip → to tear/rip up or to pieces to join together → to unify to accelerate, speed up → to achieve maximum speed to pour into → to fill (up) to bleed → to bleed to death to run → to run all the way to descend, go down → to get to the bottom to brighten → to illuminate to decelerate, slow down → to stop to search for, seek → to find to polish → to burnish to practice → to perfect to darken → to make dark to ascend, rise → to reach the top to explore → to discover

completive version is shown by modifying the Stem vowel-form in Slot II of the Formative. Change the Stem 1 vowel from -a- to -ä-. Change the Stem 2 Vowel from -e- to -i-. Change the Stem 3 vowel from -u- to -ü-. The Stem Zero vowel -o- changes to -ö-.

The following pair of sentences illustrates the distinction between processual and completive version.

Arţtulawá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

PRC-‘study’-dyn-rtr-obs Stem.3- ‘cousin’-obj-gen/1m-ind Stem.2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin studied the Ithkuil language.’

Ärţtulawá ulhiliolu wiosaḑca Iţkuil.

CPT-‘study’-dyn-rtr-obs Stem.3- ‘cousin’-obj-gen/1m-ind Stem.2/n-[carrier]-clg₁/1-thm “Ithkuil”

‘My cousin learned the Ithkuil language.’

3.8 Function

Function refers to a two-way distinction as to whether the meaning of a formative refers to a static existential or psychological state, or a dynamic action or event. The distinction between STATIVE vs. DYNAMIC function is both objective and subjective. Certain contextual situations require one or the other, while for other contextual situations, either STATIVE or DYNAMIC Function can be used with each having a different meaning/interpretation.

Function is marked by the V_R affix in Slot IV of the formative. Note that this V_R affix is a triple-purposed affix; besides Function it also indicates one of four Specifications (see Sec. 2.4.4), as well as one of four Contexts (see Sec. 3.9). The full array of the 32 different V_R affixes is shown in the table in Sec. 3.9.

Standard Slot Structure of a Formative

I	II	III	IV	V	VI	VII	VIII	IX	X
(CC	VV )	CR	VR	(CSVX...)	CA	(VXCS...)	(VN CN )	VC / VK	[stress]
Concatenation status indicator	Version + Stem	Main Root	Function + Specification + Context	VXCS affix(es) apply to stem but not to CA Form is -CSVX- (i.e., reversed from standard Slot VII VXCS form)	Configuration + Extension + Affiliation + Perspective + Essence	VXCS affixes apply to stem + CA	Valence + Mood/Case-Scope or Aspect + Mood/Case-Scope or Phase + Mood/Case-Scope or Level + Mood/Case-Scope or Effect + Mood/Case-Scope	Case or Format or Illocution + Validation as determined by Slot X syllabic stress	penultimate stress = unframed Relation + VC ultimate stress = unframed Relation + VK antepenultimate stress = framed Relation + VC
consonantal form consisting of either a glottal stop or a form beginning with -h-.	vocalic affix	cons. form	vocalic affix	consonant + vowel	if Slot V is filled, CA is geminated	vowel + consonant	Modular Slot containing a vowel-form + consonant-form	vocalic affix

3.8.1 The Stative

As a general rule, stative function indicates that the formative refers to a static unchanging entity (at least within the duration of the contextual situation being referred to). The following would be marked for stative function:

· Nouns (i.e., formatives having V_C case-marking in Slot IX) denoting physically tangible objects/entities being referred to only as a means of identifying them (i.e., any motion or change or usage being undergone by the object/entity is irrelevant to the speaker’s intent), e.g., a ball, a tree, a rock, a person, a cloud, etc.

· Nouns referring to collective, affective, intangible or abstract entities being referred to only as a means of identifying them (i.e., any change, motion or usage associated with the object/entity is irrelevant to the speaker’s intent), e.g., a crowd, a thought, an emotional state, a situation, a monarchical form of government, beauty as a concept, an aesthetic experience, an affective sensation, etc.

· Nouns referring to tangible actions/movements/motions/changes that the speaker is only referencing as a gestalt-like bounded entity (having an implied duration or spatial boundary) where the fact that the entity involves change/motion/movement/action/growth is irrelevant, e.g., (an instance/state of) laughter, (a pattern of) ocean waves, a conversation, (being out) fishing, (being out for) a walk, (an instance of) reading, (an instance/state of) hammering (going on), a meal [as an event, not a process], etc.

· Verbs (i.e., unframed formatives marked for V_K Illocution/Expectation/Validation or framed formatives) which naturally refer to a non-dynamic unchanging state (at least within the duration/scope of the speaker’s intended context), including states of identification, denotation, description. Examples:

o She is a dancer; The sky is/appears orange; The sunset is beautiful; My name is Joe/I am called Joe; The box contains nails; You look terrible; I am reading; Money symbolizes evil; Unhappiness indicates failure; Disease is rampant in that city; Proper nutrition goes hand in hand with healthy children.

3.8.2 The Dynamic

As a general rule, dynamic function indicates that the formative refers to an action/movement/motion/change or a state involving change/motion/movement/action in which the change/motion/movement/action is relevant to the speaker’s intended meaning. For contexts in which a grammatical patient is involved (marked by inducive, affective, or absolutive case), the dynamic function implies a tangible effect/impact/change undergone by the patient as a result. the following would be marked for dynamic Function:

· Nouns referring to states involving change/motion/movement/action in which the change/motion/movement/action is relevant to the speaker’s intended meaning. Translations of such dynamic-marked nouns into English will often involve a gerund form or a paraphrastic form emphasizing the verbal derivation (in English) of such a noun. Examples: the (raging of the) storm; dancing; problem-solving; a meal [as a process], etc.

· Verbs involving change/motion/movement/action in which the change/motion/movement/action is relevant to the speaker’s intended meaning, especially those involving an agent/enabler and a patient.

Note that in many cases, a particular formative may take either stative or dynamic Function, resulting in subtly different meanings/translations as shown in the following examples. (Note that several of these examples contain the Slots IV and VI morpho-phonological “shortcuts” described in Sec. 3.10).

STATIVE	DYNAMIC
Byalá pa. ‘He has/shows/is showing common sense.’	Byulá pa. (Byulá pu.*) ‘He uses/exercises/is demonstrating common sense.’ [*if emphasizing the resulting beneficial change in state]
Vvralá mi wurçpi. ‘Her passion is dance / She feels passionate about dance.’	Vvralá mi urçpuli. ‘Her passion is dancing / She feels passionate about dancing.’
Tlasatřá çkava. Disease is rampant there.	Tlusatřá çkava. Disease runs rampant there.
Txasá ku. They are having a meal.	Txusá ku. They are eating a meal.
Waltlá wele lo. I make the child wear a jacket.	Altlúl wele lo. I put a jacket on the child / I dress the child in a jacket.
Malá welu wiosaḑcä espanya. The child is speaking (in) Spanish.	Mulá welu wiosaḑcä espanya. The child is saying something in Spanish.* [*This meaning can also be conveyed by using CTE Specification: mülá]
Yeg arrlalu. The cheetah is running. [The implication being merely to highlight the current state of the animal, e.g., to focus on its speed or grace, that running is characteristic of the species, etc.]	Egúd arrlalu. The cheetah is running. [The implication being to highlight that it is acting to chase prey, to reach a destination, to flee a predator, etc.]

3.9 Context

Context is another morphological category with no equivalent in other languages. It indicates what tangible or intangible features or aspects of a formative are being psychologically implied in any given utterance. There is no way to show this in translation other than by paraphrase. There are four contexts: the existential, the functional, the representational, and the amalgamative, explained in Sections 3.9.1 through 3.9.4 below.

Context is shown by modification of the Slot II Vowel-form. This is the vowel-form that also indicates Specification (see Sec. 2.4.4) and Function (see Sec. 3.8). The vowel-forms for all three of these morphological categories are shown in the table below.

Slot IV V_R values

Function	Specification	Context				* For the four RPS forms beginning with -i-, the alternate forms shown are used when immediately preceded by -y-; For the four RPS forms beginning with -u-, the alternate forms shown are used when immediately preceded by -w-
		EXS	FNC	RPS *	AMG
STA	BSC	a	ai	ia / uä	ao
	CTE	ä	au	ie / uë	aö
	CSV	e	ei	io / üä	eo
	OBJ	i	eu	iö / üë	eö
DYN	BSC	u	ui	ua / iä	oa
	CTE	ü	iu	ue / ië	öa
	CSV	o	oi	uo / öä	oe
	OBJ	ö	ou	uö / öë	öe

3.9.1 EXS The Existential

This existential is the default Context and focuses on those features of a noun or verb which are ontologically objective, i.e., those that exist irrespective of any observers, opinions, interpretations, beliefs or attitudes. Similarly excluded from consideration in the existential is any notion of a noun’s use, function, role or benefit. The existential serves only to point out the mere existence of a noun as a tangible, objective entity under discussion. It is thus used to offer mere identification of a noun or verb.

For example, consider the sentence A cat ran past the doorway. If the words corresponding to cat, run, and doorway are in the existential, then the sentence merely describes an objective scene. No implication is intended concerning the subjective nature of the two entities or the action involved. The sentence is merely stating that two entities currently have a certain dynamic spatial relationship to each other; those two entities happen to be a cat and a doorway, and the running merely conveys the nature of the spatial relationship.

Frulawá warru přelu’a.

‘parallel.translative.motion’-dyn/exs-rtr-obs ‘cat’-sta/exs-ind ‘doorway’-sta/exs -nav

‘The cat ran past the doorway.’ [ = neutral description of physical scene only]

3.9.2 FNC The Functional

The functional context focuses on those features of a formative that are defined socially by ideas, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, convention, cultural status, use, function, benefit, etc. It serves to identify not what a noun existentially is, but to show that the noun has specific (and subjective) contextual meaning, relevance or purpose.

For example, in our previous sentence A cat ran past the doorway, if we now place the cat, doorway, and act of running each into the functional, the ‘cat’ no longer simply identifies a participant, it makes its being a cat (as opposed to say, a dog) significant, e.g., because the speaker may fear cats, or because the cat could get into the room and ruin the furniture, or because cats are associated with mystery, or because a neighbor has been looking for a lost cat, etc. The ‘doorway’ now conveys its purpose as an entry, reinforcing what the cat may do upon entering. Likewise, the verb ‘ran’ in the functional now implies the furtive nature of the cat.

Fruilawá rrailu pře’ilua.

‘parallel.translative.motion’-dyn/fnc-rtr-obs ‘cat’-sta/fnc-ind ‘doorway’-sta/fnc -nav

‘The cat ran past the doorway.’ [ = focus on the personal or social meaning/significance of the cat, the running past, and the doorway]

3.9.3 RPS The Representational

The representational context focuses on a formative as a symbol, metaphor, or metonym, in that it indicates that the formative is serving as a representation or substitute for some other concept or entity which is abstractly associated with it. For example, the metaphorical connotations of the English sentence That pinstripe-suited dog is checking out a kitty, can be equally conveyed in Ithkuil by inflecting the words for ‘dog and ‘kitty’ into the representational context. The representational is one of several ways that Ithkuil overtly renders all metaphorical, symbolic, or metonymic usages (from a grammatical standpoint).

Frualawá rrialu při’olua.

‘parallel.translative.motion’-dyn/rps-rtr-obs ‘cat’-sta/rps-ind ‘doorway’-sta/rps -nav

‘The cat ran past the doorway.’ [ = connotes that the cat, the running past, and the doorway are metaphors]

3.9.4 AMG The Amalgamative

The amalgamative context is the most abstract and difficult to understand from a Western linguistic perspective. It focuses on the systemic, holistic, gestalt-like, componential nature of a formative, implying that its objective and subjective totality is derived synergistically from (or as an emergent property of) the interrelationships between all of its parts, not just in terms of a static momentary appraisal, but in consideration of the entire developmental history of the noun and any interactions and relationships it has (whether past, present or potential) within the larger context of the world. Its use indicates the speaker is inviting the hearer to subjectively consider all the subjective wonder, emotional nuances, psychological ramifications and/or philosophical implications associated with the noun’s existence, purpose, or function, as being a world unto itself, intrinsically interconnected with the wider world beyond it on many levels.

Thus the amalgamative version of our sentence The cat ran past the doorway would take on quite melodramatic implications, with the cat being representative of everything about cats and all they stand for, the doorway as being representative of the nature of doorways as portals of change, thresholds of departure, and the juncture of past and the future, while the act of running becomes representative of flight from enemies, rapidity of movement, the body at maximum energy expenditure, etc.

Froalawá rraolu přa’ölua.

‘parallel.translative.motion’-dyn/amg-rtr-obs ‘cat’-sta/amg-ind ‘doorway’-sta/amg -nav

‘The cat ran past the doorway.’ [ = connotes a focus on the emotional impact plus cultural significance of the event]

3.10 Restructuring of Slots I and II as a “Short-Cut” for Slots IV and VI

In certain circumstances, it is possible to shorten the number of syllables in a formative by eliminating the display of Slot IV and Slot VI and instead showing their morphological information by means of Slots I and II. Formatives containing this Slot IV/VI elision are termed “short-cut” formatives. This is explained below.

Slot I of a formative carries a consonantal prefix, C_C, that serves two functions: (1) to indicate whether the formative is a concatenated formative (explained in Chapter 8), and (2) to indicate whether certain V_R+C_A forms from Slots IV and VI have been elided (thus being instead indicated by the Slot I C_C affix and Slot II V_V affix).

The default value of Slot I is a glottal stop (’), which is unwritten in the language’s romanization scheme whenever in word-initial position. (Note that this means that no formative begins with a vowel-sound; any formative written with an initial vowel in the romanized writing system is to be pronounced with a preceding glottal-stop.) This unwritten glottal-stop signifies that (1) the formative is not concatenated (see Chapter 8), and (2) Slot II of the formative displays no Slot IV or VI information and Slots IV and VI of the formative have not been elided.

On the other hand, if Slot I contains either the value w- or the value y-, then this means that Slots IV and VI of the formative have been elided, and that Slot II, in addition to carrying its usual Stem + Version information for the formative, also conveys STA Function, BSC Specification, and EXS Context (i.e., the equivalent of a Slot IV V_R affix value of -a-), as well as one of eight possible C_A permutations from Slot VI, four of which are indicated by the Slot I value of w-, and four others by a Slot I value of y-. The specific C_A values are indicated in the table below. (Note that all C_A values are default CSL Affiliation, UPX Configuration, DEL Extension, M Perspective, and NRM Essence except as shown.)

Slot II V_V if Slot I C_C is w- or y- (i.e., the formative contains a Slot IV/VI a+C_A shortcut)

Stem	Version	if CC = w then CA = [default]	if CC = y then CA = PRX Extension	if CC = w then CA= G Perspective	if CC = y then CA = RPV Essence	if CC = w then CA = N Perspective	if CC = y then CA = A Perspective	if CC = w then CA = G Perspective plus RPV Essence	if CC = y then CA = PRX Perspective plus RPV Essence
Stem 1	PRC	a		ai		ia / uä		ao
	CPT	ä		au		ie / uë		aö
Stem 2	PRC	e		ei		io / üä		eo
	CPT	i		eu		iö / üë		eö
Stem 3	PRC	u		ui		ua / iä		oa
	CPT	ü		iu		ue / ië		öa
Stem 0	PRC	o		oi		uo / öä		oe
	CPT	ö		ou		uö / öë		öe

The following examples illustrate the distinction between using a Slot I/II shortcut and not using one:

Yedpéi mmoi. / Edpadéi mmoi. ‘Where’s the thumping sound coming from?’

Weinţdâ. / Enţdarâ. ‘I recall at least one motorcyclist going by.’

Introduction	4 Case Morphology	8 Adjuncts	12 The Writing System
1 Phonology	5 Verb Morphology	9 Referentials	13 Numbers
2 Morpho-Phonology	6 More Verb Morphology	10 Special Constructions	14 The Lexicon
3 Basic Morphology	7 Affixes	11 Syntax	Appendices